Predefined identifiers (formerly called pervasives) are language defined identifiers that are visible in any lexical scope without import. They fall into five categories:

• constants
• types
• procedures
• functions
• compile-time macros

Predefined Constants

Invalid pointer value: NIL
Empty collection value: EMPTY
Boolean truth values: TRUE, FALSE

Predefined Types

Boolean type: BOOLEAN
Character types: CHAR, UNICHAR
Unsigned whole number types: OCTET, CARDINAL, LONGCARD
Signed whole number types: INTEGER, LONGINT
Real number types: REAL, LONGREAL

Predefined Procedures

INSERT(c, ...) inserts values or accessor/value pairs into collection c
APPEND(c, v1, v2, v3) appends values to the end of list or array collection c
REMOVE(c, ...) removes values or key/value pairs from collection c
SORT(t, s, order) sorts values of source collection s into target collection t
SORTNEW(t, s, order) sorts values of source collection s into newly allocated target collection t
READ(f, x) invokes TypeOf(x).Read(f, x)
READNEW(f, x) invokes TypeOf(x).Read(f, x)
WRITE(f, x) invokes TypeOf(x).Write(f, x)
WRITEF(f, fmtStr, x, ...) invokes TypeOf(x).WriteF(f, fmtStr, x, ...)
TODO(str) prints str to console, causes warning in DEBUG mode, or error otherwise

where TypeOf(x) means the identifier of type x.

Predefined Functions

ABS(x) returns the absolute value of x
ODD(x) returns TRUE if x is an odd number
PRED(x, n) returns n-th predecessor of x
SUCC(x, n) returns n-th successor of x
ORD(x) returns the ordinal value of x
CHR(x) returns the character for codepoint x
EXISTS(c, a, v) returns TRUE if value v exists for accessor a in collection c
COUNT(c) returns the number of values stored in collection c
LENGTH(s) returns length of character string s
PTR(v, T) returns typed pointer to variable v if its type is compatible with T
FIRST(c) returns first value of ordered collection c
LAST(c) returns last value of ordered collection c
MIN(v1, v2, v3 ...) returns smallest value of a list of ordinal or scalar values
MAX(v1, v2, v3 ...) returns largest value of a list of ordinal or scalar values

Built-in Compile-Time Macros

TMIN(T) replaced by smallest legal value of type T
TMAX(T) replaced by largest legal value of type T
TLIMIT(T) replaced by the capacity of collection type T
TSIZE(T) replaced by allocation size required for type T

Changes

moved to pseudo-module RUNTIME:
SIZE(v) returns the allocated size of variable v

to be moved to pseudo-module for primitives:
STORE(c, ...) stores values in set or list, or value at index, or key for value in collection c
VALUE(c, a) returns value for accessor from collection c
SUBSET(s1, s2) returns TRUE if s2 is a subset of s1

to do: add SEEK to pseudo-module for primitives

Detailed Descriptions

Constant NIL

The constant NIL represents an invalid pointer. It is compatible with any pointer type. Its value is defined as:

Dereferencing the constant NIL results in a compile time error. Dereferencing a pointer whose value is NIL results in a runtime error.

Constants TRUE and FALSE

The constants TRUE and FALSE represent the values of type BOOLEAN. Their values are defined as:

CONST TRUE = BOOLEAN.TRUE;
CONST FALSE = BOOLEAN.FALSE;

ORD(TRUE) = 0
ORD(FALSE) = 1

see also BOOLEAN

Type BOOLEAN

Type BOOLEAN is an ordinal type for boolean algebra. All boolean expressions evaluate to type BOOLEAN. It is defined as:

TYPE BOOLEAN = ( TRUE, FALSE );

TMIN(BOOLEAN) = BOOLEAN.TRUE
TMAX(BOOLEAN) = BOOLEAN.FALSE
TSIZE(BOOLEAN) = 1 (* one octet *)

Type CHAR

Type CHAR is an ordinal type for 7-bit character values. It is defined as:

TYPE CHAR = ( CHR(0) .. CHR(127) );

TMIN(CHAR) = CHR(0)
TMAX(CHAR) = CHR(127)
TSIZE(CHAR) = 1 (* 1 octet *)

Type UNICHAR

TO DO

Type OCTET

Type OCTET is an unsigned integer type that represents a storage unit of eight bits. The type is defined as:

Type CARDINAL

Type CARDINAL is an unsigned integer type large enough to hold any value in the range 0 to 65535 and any value of type SYSTEM.WORD whichever is larger. The type is defined as:

Type LONGCARD

Type LONGCARD is an unsigned integer type large enough to hold the size of the largest allocatable storage area measured in octets. The type is defined as:

Type INTEGER

Type INTEGER is a signed integer type large enough to hold any value in the range -32768 to 32767 and any value of type SYSTEM.WORD whichever is larger. The type is defined as:

Type LONGINT

Type LONGINT is a signed integer type large enough to hold the size of the largest allocatable storage area measured in octets. The type is defined as:

Type REAL

TO DO

Type LONGREAL

TO DO

Predefined Procedures

Predefined procedures are built-in macro procedures that are bound to predefined identifiers visible in every scope without import.

A predefined procedure differs from a library defined procedure:

• it does not have an address
• it cannot be passed as a procedure parameter
• it cannot be assigned to any procedure variable

Procedure READ

Procedure READ invokes library procedure Read in the module whose name is the type identifier of the second argument passed to READ. If the type is an array type, then the module name is prepended with ARRAYOF. Arguments are passed to procedure Read in the same order they are passed to READ. The procedure is defined as:

<*INLINE*> PROCEDURE READ ( f : inFile; VAR v : <AnyType> );
  (* invokes TypeOf(v).Read( f, v ) *)

The semantics are defined as:

  typeName := typeOf(v)
  insert typeName.Read(f, v)

Procedure WRITE

Procedure WRITE invokes library procedure Write in the module whose name is the type identifier of the second argument passed to READ. If the type is an array type, then the module name is prepended with ARRAYOF. Arguments are passed to procedure Write in the same order they are passed to WRITE. The procedure is defined as:

(* MACRO *) PROCEDURE WRITE ( f : outFile; v : <AnyType> );
  (* invokes TypeOf(v).Write( f, v ) *)

The semantics are defined as:

  typeName := typeOf(v)
  insert typeName.Write(f, v)

Procedure WRITEF

Procedure WRITEF invokes library procedure WriteF in the module whose name is the type identifier of the third argument passed to READ. If the type is an array type, then the module name is prepended with ARRAYOF. Arguments are passed to procedure WriteF in the same order they are passed to WRITEF. The procedure is defined as:

<*INLINE*> PROCEDURE WRITEF ( outFile : File; fmtStr : ARRAY OF CHAR;
                                 items : UNSIGNED; VARIADIC v[items] OF n : <AnyType> );
  (* invokes TypeOf(v).WriteF( f, fmtStr, ... ) *)

The semantics are defined as:

  typeName := baseTypeOf(v)
  insert typeName.WriteF(f, s, list of v)

Function ABS

Function ABS returns the absolute value of its operand. It accepts any numeric type as operand type. The returned type is always the same type as the operand type. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE ABS ( x : <AnyNumericType> ) : <OperandType>;
  (* returns the absolute value of operand x *)

This function may be bound to by library defined numeric type implementations:

PROCEDURE [ABS] abs ( b : BCD ) : BCD;
  (* returns the absolute value of BCD number b, bound to pervasive function ABS *)

Static Semantics:

A call of ABS must have one actual parameter. The parameter may be an expression of any numeric type. The function returns a value of the same type as its parameter.

ABS is a function macro. It does not have an address and it can only be used inline.

• it cannot be passed as a procedure parameter
• it cannot be assigned to any procedure variable
• it can be used in compile time expressions as long as the actual parameter is a pervasive type

Dynamic Semantics:

Function ABS calculates the absolute value and returns it. For arguments that are not of a pervasive type the function calls the argument type's library function that is bound to ABS. Passing an argument of a non-pervasive type for which no function is bound to ABS results in a compile time error. The semantics are defined as:

  argType := typeOf(x)
  if isPervasive(argType) then
    absFunc := builtinAbsForType(argType)
  else
    absFunc := boundAbsForType(argType)
    if absFunc = NIL then
      negFunc := boundNegForType(argType)
      lessFunc := boundLessForType(argType)
    endif
  endif
  if absFunc # NIL then
    if isCompileTimeExpr(x) then
      codeFragment := evaluate absFunc(x)
    else (* runtime expression *)
      codeFragment := 'absFunc(x)'
    endif
  elsif negFunc # NIL and lessFunc # NIL then
    if isCompileTimeExpr(x) then
      if lessFunc(x, 0) then
        codeFragment := evaluate negFunc(x)
      else
        codeFragment := 'x'
      endif
    else (* runtime expression *)
      codeFragment := 'IF lessFunc(x, 0) THEN negFunc(x) ELSE x END'
    endif
  else (* unsupported type *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert codeFragment

Function NEG

Function NEG returns the sign reversed value of its operand. It accepts any signed numeric type as operand type. The returned type is always the same as the operand type. This function is used to determine the value of an expression with a unary minus. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE NEG ( x : <AnySignedNumericType> ) : <OperandType>;
  (* returns the sign reversed value of operand x *)

This function may be bound to by library defined signed numeric type implementations:

PROCEDURE [NEG] unaryMinus ( b : BCD ) : BCD;
  (* returns the sign reversed value of b, bound to pervasive function NEG *)

The semantics are defined as:

  argType := typeOf(x)
  if isPervasive(argType) then
    negFunc := builtinNegForType(argType)
  else
    negFunc := boundNegForType(argType)
  endif
  if negFunc # NIL then
    if isCompileTimeExpr(x) then
      codeFragment := evaluate negFunc(x)
    else (* runtime expression *)
      codeFragment := 'negFunc(x)'
    endif
  else (* unsupported type *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert codeFragment

Function ODD

Function ODD returns TRUE if its operand is an odd number, otherwise it returns FALSE. It accepts any ordinal type as operand type. The returned type is always BOOLEAN. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE ODD ( x : <AnyOrdinalType> ) : BOOLEAN;
  (* returns TRUE if operand x is odd, otherwise FALSE *)

This function may be bound to by library defined whole number type implementations:

PROCEDURE [ODD] isOdd ( b : LONGLONGCARD ) : BOOLEAN;
  (* returns TRUE if b is odd, otherwise FALSE, bound to pervasive function ODD *)

The semantics are defined as:

  argType := typeOf(x)
  if isPervasive(argType) then
    oddFunc := builtinOddForType(argType)
  else
    oddFunc := boundOddForType(argType)
  endif
  if oddFunc # NIL then
    if isCompileTimeExpr(x) then
      codeFragment := evaluate oddFunc(x)
    else (* runtime expression *)
      codeFragment := 'oddFunc(x)'
    endif
  else (* unsupported type *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert codeFragment

Function PRED

Function PRED returns the n-th predecessor of its operand. It accepts any ordinal type as operand type. The offset type may be any unsigned type. The offset n may be omitted and if it is, a value of 1 is assumed as offset. The returned type is always the same as the operand. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE PRED ( x : <AnyOrdinalType>;
  (* OPTIONAL *) n : <anyUnsignedType> ) : <OperandType>;
  (* returns the n-th predecessor  of operand x *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isPresent(n) then
    nValue := n
  else (* default *)
    nValue := 1
  endif
  insert (ORD(x) - ORD(nValue)) :: typeOf(x)

Function SUCC

Function SUCC returns the n-th successor of its operand. It accepts any ordinal type as operand type. The offset type may be any unsigned type. The offset n may be omitted and if it is, a value of 1 is assumed as offset. The returned type is always the same as the operand. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE SUCC ( x : <AnyOrdinalType>;
  (* OPTIONAL *) n : <AnyUnsignedType> ) : <OperandType>;
  (* returns the n-th sucessor  of operand x *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isPresent(n) then
    nValue := n
  else (* default *)
    nValue := 1
  endif
  insert (ORD(x) + ORD(nValue)) :: typeOf(x)

Function ORD

Function ORD returns the ordinal value of its operand. It accepts any ordinal type as operand type. The returned type is coercible, it is always compatible with any numeric type. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE ORD ( x : <AnyOrdinalType> ) : <AnyNumericType>;
  (* returns the type coerced ordinal value of operand x *)

The semantics are defined as:

  insert x :: zzType

  if isPervasive(T) then
    isOrdValue := symTabLookup(T, isOrdinal)
  else (* non-pervasive *)
    isOrdValue := boundIsOrdForType(T)
  endif
  insert isOrdValue

Function CHR

Function CHR returns the character whose code point is the function's operand. It accepts any cardinal type as operand type. For code points between 0 and 127 the returned type is CHAR. For code points larger than 127, the return type is UNICHAR. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE CHR ( x : <AnyUnsignedType> ) : <CharacterType>;
  (* returns the character whose code point is x *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isCompileTimeExpr(x) then
    if x <= 127 then
      insert x :: CHAR
    elsif ORD(x) <= ORD(TMAX(UNICHAR)) then
      insert x :: UNICHAR
    else (* out of range *)
      raiseCompileTimeError
    endif
  else (* runtime expression *)
    insert builtInChrFunc(x)
  endif

  if x <= 127 then
    return x :: CHAR
  elsif ORD(x) <= ORD(TMAX(UNICHAR)) then
    return x :: UNICHAR
  else (* out of range *)
    raiseRuntimeError
  endif

Function COUNT

Function COUNT returns the number of items of its operand. It accepts any ordinal and any collection type as operand type but only variables may be passed in. The returned value is of type LONGCARD. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE COUNT ( v : <OrdinalOrCollectionType> ) : LONGCARD;
  (* returns the number of items in variable v *)

Function SIZE

Function SIZE returns the value of the allocated size of its operand. It accepts any type as operand type but only variables may be passed in. The returned value is of type LONGCARD. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE SIZE ( v : <AnyType> ) : LONGCARD;
  (* returns the allocation size of variable v *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isVariable(v) then
    argType := typeOf(v)
    if isDeterminateType(argType) then
      insert TSIZE(argType)
    else (* indeterminate type *)
      determinant := symTabLookup(argType, determinantField, name)
      elementType := symTabLookup(argType, indeterminateField, baseType)
      insert TSIZE(argType) + valueOf(v.determinant) * TSIZE(elementType)
    endif
  else (* not a variable *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif

Function HIGH

Function HIGH returns the highest subscript of its operand. It accepts any array type as operand type. The returned value is of type LONGCARD. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE HIGH ( a : <ArrayType> ) : LONGCARD;
  (* returns the the highest subscript of array a *)

The semantics are defined as:

  argType := typeOf(a)
  if isArray(argType) then
    if isDeterminateType(argType) then
      highValue := symTabLookup(argType, high)
      codeFragment := highValue
    else (* indeterminate type *)
      determinant := symTabLookup(argType, determinantField, reference)
      codeFragment := 'valueOf(determinant) - 1'
    endif
  else (* not an array *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert codeFragment

Function LENGTH

The function LENGTH returns the length of its operand. It accepts any character array type as operand type. The returned value is of type LONGCARD. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE LENGTH ( s : <CharacterArrayType> ) : LONGCARD;
  (* returns the length of character string s *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isCompileTimeExpr(s) then
    lenValue := lengthOfString(s)
    insert lenValue
  else (* runtime expression *)
    insert lengthOfString(s)
  endif

Function NEXTV

Function NEXTV returns a pointer to the next variadic tuple within a variadic procedure or function. Each time the function is called the pointer is advanced to the next tuple in the variadic argument list. When no more variadic tuples are available the function returns NIL. The returned type is always a pointer to the variadic tuple. The function is defined as:

PROCEDURE NEXTV ( v : <VariadicParameterType> ) : <VariadicTuplePointer>;
  (* returns pointer to next variadic tuple v *)

Function TMIN

Function TMIN returns the smallest value of its operand. It accepts any type identifier as operand. The returned type is always the operand itself. The function is defined as:

<*INLINE*> PROCEDURE TMIN ( T : <TypeIdentifier> ) : <T>;
  (* returns the smallest value of type T *)

This function may be bound to by library defined ordered numeric type implementations.

CONST [TMIN] smallestValue : BCD;
  (* defines the smallest value of type BCD, bound to pervasive function TMIN *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isPervasiveType(T) then
    tminFunc := builtinTminForType(T)
  else
    tminFunc := boundTminForType(T)
  endif
  if tminFunc # NIL then
    tminValue := evaluate tminFunc
  else (* unsupported type *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert tminValue

Function TMAX

Function TMAX returns the largest value of its operand. It accepts any type identifier as operand. The returned type is always the operand itself. The function is defined as:

<*INLINE*> PROCEDURE TMAX ( T : <TypeIdentifier> ) : <T>;
  (* returns the largest value of type T *)

This function may be bound to by library defined ordered numeric type implementations.

CONST [TMAX] largestValue : BCD;
  (* defines the largest value of type BCD, bound to pervasive function TMAX *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isPervasiveType(T) then
    tmaxFunc := builtinTmaxForType(T)
  else
    tmaxFunc := boundTmaxForType(T)
  endif
  if tmaxFunc # NIL then
    tmaxValue := evaluate tmaxFunc
  else (* unsupported type *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert tmaxValue

Function TSIZE

Function TSIZE returns the value of the allocation size required by its operand. It accepts any type identifier as operand. The returned type is of type LONGCARD. The function is defined as:

<*INLINE*> PROCEDURE TSIZE( T : <TypeIdentifier> ) : LONGCARD;
  (* returns the allocation size required for type T *)

The semantics are defined as:

  tsizeValue := symTabLookup(T, size)
  insert tsizeValue

Function VAL

Function VAL is equivalent to a type conversion expression where the first argument is the target type and the second argument is the operand. It accepts any type identifier as its first argument and any type as its second argument. The function is defined as:

<*INLINE*> PROCEDURE VAL ( T : <TypeIdentifier>; x : <AnyType> ) : <T>;
  (* equivalent to type conversion expression x :: T *)

The semantics are defined as:

  insert x :: T

Macro MIN

Macro MIN evaluates to the smallest value of its operands. It accepts a variable number of compile-time expression operands. All operands must be expression compatible and of a numeric type. The macro is defined as:

(* MACRO *) PROCEDURE MIN ( c1, c2, c3, ... : <NumericType> ) : <Constant>;
  (* evaluates at compile time to the smallest value of the operand list *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isCompileTimeExpr(firstOf(args)) then
    minValue := firstOf(args)
    for c in remainderOf(args) do
      if isCompileTimeExpr(c) then
        if c < minValue then
          minValue := c
        endif
      else (* runtime expression *)
        raiseCompileTimeError
      endif
    endfor
  else (* runtime expression *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert minValue

Macro MAX

Macro MAX evaluates to the largest value of its operands. It accepts a variable number of compile-time expression operands. All operands must be expression compatible and of a numeric type. The macro is defined as:

(* MACRO *) PROCEDURE MAX ( c1, c2, c3, ... : <NumericType> ) : <Constant>;
  (* evaluates at compile time to the largest value of the operand list *)

The semantics are defined as:

  if isCompileTimeExpr(firstOf(args)) then
    maxValue := firstOf(args)
    for c in remainderOf(args) do
      if isCompileTimeExpr(c) then
        if c > maxValue then
          maxValue := c
        endif
      else (* runtime expression *)
        raiseCompileTimeError
      endif
    endfor
  else (* runtime expression *)
    raiseCompileTimeError
  endif
  insert maxValue